We will use git to manage lab and program submissions in this course. At minimum, this allows our TAs to quickly access your assignments that you “submit” on the server, and allows you to get some basic practice with an extremely important tool in the software development world. You can also choose to use git more extensively to manage your work in this class.

Git basics

Git is a version control system, meaning that it is meant to keep track of changes to code. It’s especially useful for collaborating, but it can also be used when working by yourself so that you can keep a history of your changes and why you made them.

Git is not GitHub. GitHub is a service that hosts many git repositories. Other similar services include GitLab and BitBucket. In this course, we will not cover hosting services.

Other version control systems include Mercurial and Subversion. Because these are version control systems, they are comparable to git. In this course, we will focus on git, not other version control systems.

Git repositories

The basic organizational unit in git is called a repository, or a repo for short. As the name implies, it is a place to store things. In practice, a repository is a directory in your filesystem. Any subdirectories are also part of the repository. For example, at some point during this class, your csci112_fall2024 directory might look like this:

csci112_fall2024/
├── classwork
│   ├── week1
│   │   └── fri
│   │       ├── autograder.txt
│   │       └── example.txt
│   └── week2
│       └── mon
│           ├── autograder.txt
│           ├── hello_world.c
│           └── out.txt
└── labs
    └── lab1
          ├── autograder.txt
          ├── lab1.c
          └── temp.txt

This means that the csci112_fall2024 directory contains two subdirectories, classwork and labs, each of which can contain their own subdirectories, and inside those subdirectories are various files.

If we make csci112_fall2024 a git repository, all of the subdirectories and files inside of it are part of the repository.

Git commits

The snapshots of our repository that we use git to record are called commits. We make a commit every time make a change that we would like to record. Although we may only change one file, a commit is actually a snapshot of the entire directory at the time that we make the commit. In practice, making a commit looks like this:

git commit -m "<Put a description of the changes made in this commit in the quotes>"

Staging in git (git add)

Git includes an extra step to making a commit that many other version control systems do not: staging. In order to make a commit, we first must stage our changes: that is, tell git which files were changed and should thus be included in the next commit. We can either stage files by name:

git add file1.txt

or we can stage all files in the repository that have changed:

git add -A

Note that you must stage your files before you can commit them!

Setup for assignment submission

For this course, we’re going to create a git repository and use it to tag the version of our programs that we would like to be graded.

Creating a git repository

To start, create a directory. For this course, your directory should be called csci112_fall2024, so we will use that as an example. You should already have this directory, but if you didn’t, you would create it using mkdir csci112_fall2024.

Navigate into the directory:

cd csci112_fall2024

Initialize a git repository inside the directory:

git init

You will see the following message. You can ignore the first part about hints:

hint: Using 'master' as the name for the initial branch. This default branch name
hint: is subject to change. To configure the initial branch name to use in all
hint: of your new repositories, which will suppress this warning, call:
hint:
hint: 	git config --global init.defaultBranch <name>
hint:
hint: Names commonly chosen instead of 'master' are 'main', 'trunk' and
hint: 'development'. The just-created branch can be renamed via this command:
hint:
hint: 	git branch -m <name>
Initialized empty Git repository in /home/<your_netid>/csci112_fall2024/.git/

But notice the last line: Initialized empty Git repository in /home/<your_netid>/csci112_fall2024/.git/. csci112_fall2024 directory is now a git repository!

Try running git status to see the status of your repository. You should see something like this:

[g73x595@csci112 csci112_fall2024]$ git status
On branch master

No commits yet

Untracked files:
  (use "git add <file>..." to include in what will be committed)
	classwork/

nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use "git add" to track)

If you just created your csci112_fall2024 directory for the first time and it is empty, you will need to create a file something for git to track. You could do this by opening a new file with vim, putting some text in, and saving it. Or you can copy the following:

echo "Hello, world!" > example.txt

(The echo command prints whatever you specify to the screen; the > redirects that output to a file instead of the screen.) You may want to check that the file is there by running ls.

Now, we can stage all of your files by running

git add -A

The -A is for “all”. Now, if you run git status, you should see:

On branch master

No commits yet

Changes to be committed:
  (use "git rm --cached <file>..." to unstage)
	new file:   classwork/week1/fri/autograder.txt
	new file:   classwork/week1/fri/example.txt
	new file:   classwork/week2/mon/autograder.txt
	new file:   classwork/week2/mon/hello_world.c
	new file:   classwork/week2/mon/out.txt

This means that all of the files in your repository have been staged.

Now, we are finally ready to commit. We also need to provide a description of this commit, called a commit message, which we specify with the -m option followed by our message in quotes. For example, we might do:

git commit -m "Add previous classworks"

And then we see a message like this:

[master (root-commit) 2c82f20] Add previous classworks
 5 files changed, 30 insertions(+)
 create mode 100644 classwork/week1/fri/autograder.txt
 create mode 100644 classwork/week1/fri/example.txt
 create mode 100644 classwork/week2/mon/autograder.txt
 create mode 100644 classwork/week2/mon/hello_world.c
 create mode 100644 classwork/week2/mon/out.txt

Running git status again shows that we have no unsaved changes:

On branch master
nothing to commit, working tree clean

We can run

git log

to see a history of all of our commits. In this case, it looks something like

commit 9a8c77c95593a302436dfb9509663658271f43e9 (HEAD -> master)
Author: fangtian.zhong <fangtian.zhong@montana.edu>
Date:   Sun Aug 20 18:40:50 2024 -0600

    Add previous classworks

Tagging a commit

If we want to label a commit because it is important or we want to be able to access it easily, we can give it a tag. In this class, you will use git tags to indicate which version of your code we should grade.

To create a tag, run git tag <tagname> after you have committed your changes. You can run git log to check that your tag was associated with the right commit. For example, we might run

git tag example_tag

and then

git log

and see

commit 2c82f20e9b41b4fe09b6c142d381dce32f95abe3 (HEAD -> master, tag: example_tag)
Author: fangtian.zhong <fangtian.zhong@montana.edu>
Date:   Thu Jan 26 19:55:31 2024 -0700

    Add example.txt file

Note the tag at the end of the first line!

You’ll notice that if you make a new commit and try to tag that commit with a tag tagname that has already been used, you’ll get this message:

fatal: tag '<tagname>' already exists

To solve this, first delete the tag

git tag -d <tagname>

and then tag as normal

git tag <tagname>

You can tag a previous commit by referencing its commit hash. For example, if I run git log and see something like this:

[g73x595@csci112 csci112_fall2024]$ git log
commit 71203455057227331ac8384f3f2c2a1910ef5094 (HEAD -> master)
Author: fangtian.zhong <fangtian.zhong@montana.edu>
Date:   Fri Feb 10 09:08:12 2024 -0700

    Add a example file

commit aa08bd749ec35221abd90ce0908fa7279714e3c1 (origin/master)
Author: fangtian.zhong <fangtian.zhong@montana.edu>
Date:   Wed Feb 8 16:38:34 2024 -0700

    Update

commit 3601b167efb9a1c6ed3f384c55a720c740f4ab07
Author: fangtian.zhong <fangtian.zhong@montana.edu>
Date:   Thu Jan 26 20:19:37 2024 -0700

    lab1

commit 5170dff5f9795001a837407645ed55cae24e43d9
Author: fangtian.zhong <fangtian.zhong@montana.edu>
Date:   Thu Jan 26 20:18:53 2024 -0700

    Update

and I want to tag the commit with the comment “lab1” with the tag lab1 , I could run

git tag lab1 3601b167efb9a1c6ed3f384c55a720c740f4ab07

tl;dr

Once you have a version of your lab or program that you would like to “submit”, (i.e., be the one we grade if you don’t update it), do this:

git add -A
git commit -m "<description of your changes, or just name of assignment>"
git tag <specified tag for assignment>

If the tag already exists, do git tag -d <specified tag for assignment> before the third command above.

Common issues

Nested repositories

In general, you do not want to have nested git repositories. This is what happens if you run git init in one directory, and then run it again in one of the subdirectories of that directory later. You’ll know if you have nested repositories if git log looks different in different directories of your repository.

Let’s get a better understanding of what this means with an example. Suppose that you have one directory called directory, and inside it you had two directories called subdir1 and subdir2, and maybe those have a few files in them. Visually, that looks like this:

├── directory
│   ├── subdir1
│   │   ├── file1.txt
│   └── subdir2
│       ├── file2.txt
│       └── file3.txt

If at some point you had run git init when you were in directory, then directory (and everything in it, including the subdirectories) is now being tracked as a git repository. This means that there is a .git directory inside directory, so the file structure actually looks like this:

├── directory
|   ├── .git
│   ├── subdir1
│   │   ├── file1.txt
│   └── subdir2
│       ├── file2.txt
│       └── file3.txt

(Note that we don’t see .git unless we look for hidden files, for example by running ls -a when we’re in the directory directory.)

Now suppose we navigate to subdir1 and run git init. This creates another (nested) repository inside subdir1, so there is another .git directory under subdir1, and subdir1 is a new git repository with its own commit history.

├── directory
|   ├── .git
│   ├── subdir1
│   │   ├── .git
│   │   ├── file1.txt
│   └── subdir2
│       ├── file2.txt
│       └── file3.txt

But the whole idea of a repository is that it tracks everything inside of it. So now the directory repository is tracking file1.txt and so is the subdir1 repository, but there’s just the one file and so it really only makes sense to track it once.

If you realize you have created a nested repository, make sure you understand the level that you really want your repository to exist, and then delete the unneeded one by deleting the associated .git repository. The command to do this will be different depending on where you currently are. If you’re in directory, it would be rm -rf subdir1/.git. -r says delete all subdirectories recursively, and -f says force the deletions without checking whether you want to delete each file. (There are a lot of them in there.) Note that this deletes the whole commit history and can’t be undone, so make sure you delete the correct .git directory.

Optional: more advanced git

Adding a remote to your repository

If you would like to connect your csci112_fall2024 repository to GitHub, do the following steps. You must choose whether to use HTTPS or SSH to communicate with GitHub. Either is fine, but HTTPS is simpler, so I recommend that.

  1. Create a new repository on GitHub.com. Do not initialize the new repository with README, license, or gitignore files. Please make this repository private so that I can reuse assignments for this course without the solutions being available online! Copy the remote url with https in it.
  2. On the server, navigate to your csci112_fall2024 repository and run 
    git remote add origin <REMOTE_URL>
  3. Now run 
    git push --set-upstream origin master

You may need to generate and enter a personal access token here.

Everything in your repository is now stored on the connected GitHub repository as well! But updates are not automatic. After any new commits, if you would like to send them to the GitHub repository, run

git push

Cloning that repo to your local computer

To copy over the files in your csci112_fall2024 directory (and now on GitHub as well) to a local computer, clone the GitHub repository.

In a terminal window, enter

git clone <REMOTE_URL>

This will create a directory called csci112_fall2024 that holds everything that was in the GitHub repo. If you make an update there (by pushing from the server) and want to get that update on your computer, navigate into the csci112_fall2024 directory and run git pull.

Additional resources

You can watch the lecture and/or read the text from the MIT Missing Semester lecture on git.

You can look at the git tutorial from the software carpentries program, which aims to teach researchers basic computing skills.